CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Male and female

A. Basic Physical Difference

1. Zygote receives sex chromosome from each parent

a. genetically, XX is male and XY is female

b. are individuals with XXY and XYY pattern

c. chromosomes impact prenatal hormone levels

i. hormones responsible for genitalia

ii. only females can bear children

iii. males typically larger, taller, more muscular

2. Gender role-- pattern of behavior for males and females expected by society

a. gender role norms-- society expectations standards

b. gender role stereotypes-- overgeneralizations/beliefs

c. gender typing-- acquisition of information concerning sex-based

characteristics that culture sets for males and females

B. Gender Norms and Stereotypes

1. Feminine role

a. communality-- connectedness to others (emotionality, sensitivity)

b. some argue female brain “hard wired” for empathy

c. preparation for role as wife and mother

2. Agency-- individual action (independence, assertiveness)

a. stereotypically male

b. male brain may systemize-- analyze and explore how things work

3. Gender stereotypes still exist

women may be beginning to see themselves in more masculine terms

C. Are There Actual Gender Differences?

1. Maccoby & Jacklin classic study (1974)

a. females have greater verbal abilities than males

recent research indicates this difference may have disappeared,

but girls still perform better in high school English classes

b. males show greater spatial ability than females

mental rotation differences seen in childhood

c. males outperform females on tests of average tests of mathematical

ability

i. females may have superior computational skills

ii. males better at verbal math problems

iii. more males are top scorers and lowest performers

d. males are more physically and verbally aggressive than females,

starting as early as age 2

e. males more physically active

f. boys more developmentally vulnerable (prone to illness or death)

g. girls more compliant to adult requests

h. girls more tactful and cooperative

i. females thought to be more empathetic and nurturing

behaviorally not much difference

j. females somewhat more anxious and cautious

k. males have slight advantage in self-esteem

l. males more likely to engage in more risky behavior

2. Some researchers argue that "actual" sex differences are trivial

3. Difference found in “average” levels of behaviors between sexes

impossible to predict a behavior if all you know about someone is their

sex

4. Most gender stereotypes are unsupported overgeneralizations

5. Eagly's social-role hypothesis-- different roles males and females play in

society create and maintain gender-role stereotypes

a. traditional business role of men requires dominance

b. traditional role of mother requires nurturance and sensitivity

c. contextual factors (being steered down a culturally acceptable path) also

contribute to evidence of sex differences

6. Just because many gender stereotypes are unfounded, they may have a great

impact on the way people act

7. Society does steer each sex toward different goals

II. The infant

A. Differential Treatment

1. Adults respond differently to infants on basis of perceived sex

2. Few objective differences between male and female children in infancy

3. Sex-appropriate hairstyles, toys, and room furnishing occur very early

4. Stereotypic treatment may actually be cause of differences between the sexes

B. Early Learning

1. By end of first year, infants distinguish men and women

2. Begin early categorization of the sexes

3. Also begin to figure out which sex they are

4. Development of gender identity by age 2 1/2 to 3, accompanied by differences

in behavior

III. The child

A. Acquiring Gender Stereotypes

1. Child learns some stereotypes by 2 1/2, and continues to learn them

2. 24-month olds understand difference between masculine and feminine

activities

3. 4 to 6-year-olds understand masculine and feminine stereotyped-occupations

4. Rigid adherence to gender-norms at ages 4 to 6 years may be followed by more

flexibility in thinking

5. Young children may exaggerate gender roles to help cognitively clarify them

6. Rigidity about role may depend on how essential or valued the behavior is

B. Gender-Typed Behavior

1. Behaving in gender appropriate manner often precedes establishment of clear

sense of own identity

2. Young children tend to prefer and form friendships with same-sex partners

3. Gender segregation-- strong preference for interactions with same-sex peers

a. found across many cultures

b. roles incompatible due to differences in play styles

c. strong adherence to roles seen in children who are socially competent

and popular

4. Boys under greater pressure than girls to adhere to gender-role expectations

masculine role more clearly defined and those who do not adhere face ridicule

IV. The adolescent

A. Adhering to Gender Roles

1. Gender intensification-- sex differences are magnified by increased pressure to conform around the time of puberty (linked to hormonal changes)

a. boys masculine and interested in male roles

b. girls feminine and interested in females roles

2. Peers critical as conforming to traditional roles seen as appealing to opposite

sex traditional roles linked to popularity

3. Later adolescence, more comfort with identity and more flexibility in thinking

B. Explaining Gender-Role Development

1. Biosocial theory (Money and Ehrhardt)

a. chromosomes, hormones, and social labeling

i. presence of gene on Y chromosome leads to the development of testes (otherwise you get ovaries)

ii. testosterone stimulates growth of male internal reproductive

system

iii. release of hormones by male inhibits development of female

organs

iv. 3- to 4-months post conception, release of hormones leads to

development of penis and scrotum

v. if no hormones released, the fetus will develop female external

genitalia

vi. fertilized eggs have potential to acquire features of either sex

vi. society labels and differential treatment of child on basis of

male or female genitals creates gender-roles

viii. puberty leads to release of more hormones that stimulate

reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics

b. evidence of biological influences

i. evolutionary psychologists use non-human animal for evidence

of biologically-based sex differences

ii. studies of children exposed to “wrong hormones”

iii. androgenized females (exposed to excessive levels of “male

associated” androgens) display more male-like actions

iv. testosterone levels may effect aggression

v. while influential, biological factors alone do not dictate gender-

role development

c. evidence of social-labeling influences

i. fewer problems with children “relabeled” prior to 18 months

ii. critical period of self-gender labeling between 18 and 36 months

iii. may not be “critical period” but “sensitive” period

2. Psychoanalytic theory

Freud emphasizes the phallic stage of psychosexual development

i. identification with same-sex parent to resolve conflicts

ii. Oedipus complex-- boys unconscious sexual desire for mother

iii. Electra complex-- girls unconscious sexual desire for father

desire fathers (penis envy)

iv. identification leads to girls taking on feminine role and boys

masculine role

v. due to castration anxiety boys more driven toward following

traditional gender roles

vi. support for some aspects of Freud’s theory but other ideas

questioned (e.g., young children not aware of genitalia of

others)

3. Social learning theory

a. differential reinforcement for sex-appropriate behaviors

i. boys rewarded for male behavior

ii. girls rewarded for female behavior

b. observational learning-- model male and female behavior seen in

parents, peers, media

c. differential reinforcement

i. parents reinforce sex-appropriate behavior and reprimand sons

for engaging in feminine behavior

ii. parents provide differential punishment (more physical for

boys and more verbal for girls)

iii. parents have different emotions toward male and female

children (anger at sons, disappointment at daughters)

iv. overall pattern of parents called “gender curriculum”

v. parental behavior does have impact and may create self-

fulfilling prophecy (Eccles, et al 1990)

vi. parents expect sons to do better at math

vii. attribute boys math success to being male and females to hard

work

viii. children internalize parents views

ix. thinking they lack ability, girls become less interested in math

x. peers also provide differential reinforcement

d. observational learning evidence/examples

i. children pay closer attention to same-sex models

ii. watch parents to determine gender-roles

iii. children’s picture books often depict males and females in

stereotypic ways

iv. television characters often reinforce stereotypic sex-role

behavior

v. children who watch more television more likely to hold

stereotypic views of men and women

e. criticism is that model does not place enough emphasis on child’s own

role in gender socialization/acquisition (i.e., child too passive)

4. Cognitive theories

a. cognitive-developmental theory (Kohlberg)

i. gender-role development depends on stage-like changes in cognitive development

ii. children engage in self-socialization

iii. three stages-- basic gender identity, gender stability, gender

consistency

iv. basic gender identity-- by age 2 to 3 able to recognize males

and female distinction

v. gender stability-- understand that boys become men and girls

become women

vi. gender consistency-- realizes that one’s own sex does not

change

vii. criticism is that children are not cognitive capable of

understanding consistency at such a young age

b. gender schema theory (Martin and Halverson)

i. gender schema-- (mental organization of meaning of gender) a key

ii. children form an in-group/out-group schema based on gender

iii. compare world to own sex-schema

iv. interpret new information so it is consistent with schemata

v. may distort reality to fit schema

5. An attempt at integration

a. biosocial model key focus on biology and labeling

b. social learning key focus on differential experience

c. cognitive key focus on thought and interpretation

d. all factors play some role

V. The adult

A. Changes in Gender Roles

1. Roles tend to become more distinct in adulthood especially in married couples

with children

2. Roles tend to become more similar starting in middle-age

B. Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny

1. Androgyny (Bem)-- blending of positive masculine and feminine traits

view masculinity and femininity as separate dimensions of personality

i. masculine sex-type (instrumentality)-- dominated by male

traits

ii. feminine sex-type (expressivity)-- dominated by female traits

iii. androgynous sex-type-- combination (about a third of people in

this category)

2. Changes with age

a. parental imperative-- gender role distinctions required by parents

i. stronger traditional roles until children leave home

ii. after children leave shift to men more passive (feminine) and

women more (masculine) active

b. androgyny shift-- don’t give up old traits in middle age, simply add in

some new (idea similar to that proposed by Jung)

some support for this hypothesis in grandparents

3. Is androgyny advantageous?

a. provides greater flexibility in behavior

b. masculine traits associated with high self-esteem and good adjustment

c. possessing too many traits can result in peer rejection

d. negative androgyny can be detrimental

VI. Sexuality over the life span

A. Are Infants Sexual Beings?

1. Freud championed idea of infant sexuality

2. Infants are biologically equipped and derive pleasure from oral activities and

genital stimulation

B. Childhood Sexuality

1. Knowledge of sex and reproduction

a. learn that sexual anatomy is key differentiator of males and females

b. learn vocabulary of sex organs

c. possess basic knowledge of sex and reproduction “where babies come

from”

d. construct their own reality concerning subject

e. by age 12 most have fundamental understanding of sexual intercourse

and egg and sperm role in process

f. cognitive advancement leads to better understanding of sexuality

2. Sexual behavior

a. phallic stage (Freud) is time of genital interest (including masturbation)

sexual interest quite common

b. latency stage (Freud) time when sex drive decreases

c. curiosity about bodies, masturbation, and sexual play in preschoolers

and school-age children

d. around 10, children often experience first sexual attraction

may be influenced by adrenal gland development and release of

androgens

e. societal differences contribute to diversity in sexual attitudes and behaviors

i. “teen permissive” and “sexually conservative” societies

ii. impacts attitudes (e.g., teen sex is wrong)

f. learn how to relate to other sex using peers

3. Child sexual abuse

a. estimates of prevalence vary, but may be widespread

b. many children do not tell anyone

c. no one distinct “syndrome” for all abuse victims

d. may result in lack of self-worth and difficulty trusting, sexualized behavior, posttraumatic stress disorder

e. some display posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms-- nightmares,

flashbacks, helplessness, anxiety

f. in a few cases, result of abuse is severe psychological damage

g. impact may be most severe when abuse involves penetration, force,

occurs over a long period of time, and perpetrator is close relative

h. psychotherapy aid in treatment of abuse victims

C. Adolescent Sexuality

1. Sexual orientation-- preference for sex partner

a. continuum of sexual orientation, although our culture tends to

recognize only three: heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual

b. most teens establish heterosexual orientation

c. establishing homosexual orientation more difficult

often do not “come out” until after high school (mid 20s)

d. sexual experimentation with same sex may be common

e. homosexuality influenced by genetic and environmental factors

i. strong cross-sexed interest when young

ii. become aware that traditional gender roles do not suit them

iii. not do to domineering mom and weak dad, or seduction by

older adult

iv. prenatal hormones may predispose an individual to an

orientation

2. Sexual morality

a. sex with affection is acceptable

b. decline of the double standard-- sexual behavior appropriate in males

and inappropriate in females

c. increased confusion about sexual norms due to mixed societal messages

sex makes you popular versus value virginity and avoid STDs

3. Sexual behavior

a. rate of sexual activity climbs between 1960s and 80s, leveled off, and is

now declining

b. percent of teens having intercourse increased steadily in 20^th century

c. sexual behavior of females changing faster than males

d. cognitive schema for “having sex” may not include oral sex as defined

by high school students

e. early sex more likely in children of teen parents

f. first intercourse later in girls whose parents have always been married

g. males and females feel differently about sexual encounters

i. teen boy first intercourse pleasurable

ii. teen girls first intercourse more negative

iii. females more likely to link emotional and physical intimacy

iv. gap between male and females concerning sex and intimacy

may create misunderstandings

h. lack of contraception use partially related to cognitive immaturity of

adolescent couples

i. condom use is increasing

ii. adolescent couples in long-term relationship become less likely

to use condom as they no longer fear transmission of HIV or

STDs

i. negative consequences of teen pregnancy include low income and

interrupted education

j. teens becoming less likely to change sex habits in response to AIDS

leading to increase in calls for sexual education in school

D. Adult Sexuality

1. Adult sex lives quite varied

a. some many partners some few

b. small decline in quality of sex life for married couples

2. Most people are sexual beings throughout the life span, even in 90s

3. Activity level does decline with age

4. Explanations for declining activity-- comfort bicycle model of sexual decline

in old age, general infirmity, look ridiculous, no bike

a. physical changes

i. male is slower to recover after ejaculation

ii. some decline in male hormone release with age

iii. female physiological changes less dramatic

iv. menopause tends to not reduce interest in sex or sex activity

b. infirmity, diseases, and disabilities may limit function

may lead to impotence in men

c. concerns about social attitudes (sex in old age is ridiculous)

i. elderly stereotyped as sexless

ii. negative attitudes may be internalized by elderly

d. lack of partner or willing partner diminished sex

e. lack of sexual experience in young adulthood predicts less sex in later

life